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<title>Screen reader</title>

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<span id="openzim-page-title" class="mw-page-title-main"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Screen reader</span></span>

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A <b>screen reader</b> is a form of <a href="Assistive_technology" title="Assistive technology">assistive technology</a> (<abbr>AT</abbr>)<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that renders text and image content as speech or braille output. Screen readers are essential to <a href="Blindness" class="mw-redirect" title="Blindness">blind</a> people,<sup id="cite_ref-afb_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-afb-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and are useful to <a href="Visually_impaired" class="mw-redirect" title="Visually impaired">visually impaired</a> people,<sup id="cite_ref-afb_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-afb-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="Illiteracy" class="mw-redirect" title="Illiteracy">illiterate</a>, or have a <a href="Learning_disability" title="Learning disability">learning disability</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Screen1_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Screen1-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Screen readers are <a href="Application_software" title="Application software">software applications</a> that attempt to convey what people with normal eyesight see on a <a href="Display_device" title="Display device">display</a> to their users via non-visual means, like <a href="Text-to-speech" class="mw-redirect" title="Text-to-speech">text-to-speech</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> sound icons,<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or a <a href="Refreshable_Braille_display" class="mw-redirect" title="Refreshable Braille display">braille device</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-afb_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-afb-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They do this by applying a wide variety of techniques that include, for example, interacting with dedicated <a href="#Accessibility_APIs">accessibility APIs</a>, using various <a href="Operating_system" title="Operating system">operating system</a> features (like <a href="Inter-process_communication" title="Inter-process communication">inter-process communication</a> and querying <a href="User_interface" title="User interface">user interface</a> properties), and employing <a href="Hooking" title="Hooking">hooking</a> techniques.<sup id="cite_ref-SR_Overview_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SR_Overview-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p><a href="Microsoft_Windows" title="Microsoft Windows">Microsoft Windows</a> <a href="Operating_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Operating systems">operating systems</a> have included the <a href="Microsoft_Narrator" class="mw-redirect" title="Microsoft Narrator">Microsoft Narrator</a> screen reader since <a href="Windows_2000" title="Windows 2000">Windows 2000</a>, though separate products such as <a href="Freedom_Scientific" title="Freedom Scientific">Freedom Scientific</a>'s commercially available <a href="JAWS_(screen_reader)" title="JAWS (screen reader)">JAWS</a> screen reader and <a href="ZoomText" title="ZoomText">ZoomText</a> screen magnifier and the <a href="Free_and_open_source" class="mw-redirect" title="Free and open source">free and open source</a> screen reader <a href="NonVisual_Desktop_Access" title="NonVisual Desktop Access">NVDA</a> by NV Access are more popular for that operating system.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="Apple_Inc." title="Apple Inc.">Apple Inc.</a>'s <a href="MacOS" title="MacOS">macOS</a>, <a href="IOS" title="IOS">iOS</a>, and <a href="TvOS" title="TvOS">tvOS</a> include <a href="VoiceOver" title="VoiceOver">VoiceOver</a> as a built-in screen reader, while <a href="Google" title="Google">Google</a>'s <a href="Android_(operating_system)" title="Android (operating system)">Android</a> provides the <a href="Google_TalkBack" class="mw-redirect" title="Google TalkBack">Talkback screen reader</a> and its <a href="ChromeOS" title="ChromeOS">ChromeOS</a> can use ChromeVox.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similarly, Android-based devices from Amazon provide the VoiceView screen reader. There are also free and open source screen readers for <a href="Linux" title="Linux">Linux</a> and <a href="Unix-like" title="Unix-like">Unix-like</a> systems, such as Speakup and <a href="Orca_(assistive_technology)" title="Orca (assistive technology)">Orca</a>.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div>

<p>Around 1978, Al Overby of IBM Raleigh developed a prototype of a talking terminal, known as SAID (for Synthetic Audio Interface Driver), for the <a href="IBM_3270" title="IBM 3270">IBM 3270 terminal</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> SAID read the ASCII values of the display in a stream and spoke them through a large vocal track synthesizer the size of a suitcase, and it cost around $10,000.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Dr. Jesse Wright, a blind research mathematician, and <a href="James_W._Thatcher" title="James W. Thatcher">Jim Thatcher</a>, formerly his graduate student from the University of Michigan, working as mathematicians for IBM, adapted this as an internal IBM tool for use by blind people. After the early <a href="IBM_Personal_Computer" title="IBM Personal Computer">IBM Personal Computer (PC)</a> was released in 1981, Thatcher and Wright developed a software equivalent to SAID, called PC-SAID, or <i>Personal Computer Synthetic Audio Interface Driver</i>. This was renamed and released in 1984 as IBM Screen Reader, which became the <a href="Generic_trademark" title="Generic trademark">proprietary eponym</a> for that general class of assistive technology.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types">Types</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Command-line_(text)">Command-line (text)</h3></div>

<p>In early <a href="Operating_system" title="Operating system">operating systems</a>, such as <a href="MS-DOS" title="MS-DOS">MS-DOS</a>, which employed <a href="Command-line_interface" title="Command-line interface">command-line interfaces</a> (<abbr>CLI</abbr>s), the screen display consisted of <a href="Character_(computing)" title="Character (computing)">characters</a> <a href="Memory-mapped_I/O" class="mw-redirect" title="Memory-mapped I/O">mapping</a> directly to a <a href="Screen_buffer" class="mw-redirect" title="Screen buffer">screen buffer</a> in <a href="Computer_memory" title="Computer memory">memory</a> and a <a href="Cursor_(computers)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cursor (computers)">cursor</a> position. Input was by keyboard. All this information could therefore be obtained from the system either by <a href="Hooking" title="Hooking">hooking</a> the flow of information around the system and reading the screen buffer or by using a standard hardware output socket<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and communicating the results to the user.

</p><p>In the 1980s, the Research Centre for the Education of the Visually Handicapped (<abbr>RCEVH</abbr>) at the <a href="University_of_Birmingham" title="University of Birmingham">University of Birmingham</a> developed a Screen Reader for the <a href="BBC_Micro" title="BBC Micro">BBC Micro</a> and NEC Portable.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Graphical">Graphical</h3></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Off-screen_models">Off-screen models</h4></div>

<p>With the arrival of <a href="Graphical_user_interface" title="Graphical user interface">graphical user interfaces</a> (<abbr>GUI</abbr>s), the situation became more complicated. A <abbr>GUI</abbr> has characters and graphics drawn on the screen at particular positions, and therefore there is no purely textual representation of the graphical contents of the display. Screen readers were therefore forced to employ new low-level techniques, gathering messages from the <a href="Operating_system" title="Operating system">operating system</a> and using these to build up an "off-screen model", a representation of the display in which the required text content is stored.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>For example, the operating system might send messages to draw a command button and its caption. These messages are intercepted and used to construct the off-screen model. The user can switch between controls (such as buttons) available on the screen and the captions and control contents will be read aloud and/or shown on a <a href="Refreshable_braille_display" title="Refreshable braille display">refreshable braille display</a>.

</p><p>Screen readers can also communicate information on menus, controls, and other visual constructs to permit blind users to interact with these constructs. However, maintaining an off-screen model is a significant technical challenge; hooking the low-level messages and maintaining an accurate model are both difficult tasks.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Accessibility_APIs">Accessibility APIs</h4></div>

<p>Operating system and application designers have attempted to address these problems by providing ways for screen readers to access the display contents without having to maintain an off-screen model. These involve the provision of alternative and accessible representations of what is being displayed on the screen accessed through an <abbr><a href="Application_programming_interface" class="mw-redirect" title="Application programming interface">API</a></abbr>. Existing <abbr>API</abbr>s include:

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<ul><li>Android Accessibility Framework<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>

<li>Apple Accessibility <abbr>API</abbr><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>

<li><a href="IAccessible2" title="IAccessible2">IAccessible2</a></li>

<li><a href="Microsoft_Active_Accessibility" title="Microsoft Active Accessibility">Microsoft Active Accessibility</a> (<abbr>MSAA</abbr>)</li>

<li><a href="Microsoft_UI_Automation" title="Microsoft UI Automation">Microsoft UI Automation</a></li>

<li><a href="Java_Access_Bridge" title="Java Access Bridge">Java Access Bridge</a><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul>

<p>Screen readers can query the operating system or application for what is currently being displayed and receive updates when the display changes. For example, a screen reader can be told that the current focus is on a button and the button caption to be communicated to the user. This approach is considerably easier for the developers of screen readers, but fails when applications do not comply with the accessibility <abbr>API</abbr>: for example, <a href="Microsoft_Word" title="Microsoft Word">Microsoft Word</a> does not comply with the <abbr>MSAA</abbr> <abbr>API</abbr>, so screen readers must still maintain an off-screen model for Word or find another way to access its contents. One approach is to use available operating system messages and application object models to supplement accessibility <abbr>API</abbr>s.

</p><p>Screen readers can be assumed to be able to access all display content that is not intrinsically inaccessible. Web browsers, word processors, icons and windows and email programs are just some of the applications used successfully by screen reader users. However, according to some users, using a screen reader is considerably more difficult than using a GUI, and many applications have specific problems resulting from the nature of the application (e.g. animations) or failure to comply with accessibility standards for the platform (e.g. Microsoft Word and Active Accessibility).

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Self-voicing_programs_and_applications">Self-voicing programs and applications</h3></div>

<p>Some programs and applications have voicing technology built in alongside their primary functionality. These programs are termed <a href="Self-voicing" title="Self-voicing">self-voicing</a> and can be a form of <a href="Assistive_technology" title="Assistive technology">assistive technology</a> if they are designed to remove the need to use a screen reader.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cloud-based">Cloud-based</h3></div>

<p>Some telephone services allow users to interact with the internet remotely. For example, TeleTender can read web pages over the phone and does not require special programs or devices on the user side.

</p><p><a href="Virtual_assistant" title="Virtual assistant">Virtual assistants</a> can sometimes read out written documents (textual web content, <abbr><a href="Portable_Document_Format" class="mw-redirect" title="Portable Document Format">PDF</a></abbr> documents, e-mails etc.) The best-known examples are Apple's <a href="Siri" title="Siri">Siri</a>, <a href="Google_Assistant" title="Google Assistant">Google Assistant</a>, and <a href="Amazon_Alexa" title="Amazon Alexa">Amazon Alexa</a>.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Web-based">Web-based</h3></div>

<p>A relatively new development in the field is web-based applications like Spoken-Web that act as web portals, managing content like news updates, weather, science and business articles for visually impaired or blind computer users. Other examples are ReadSpeaker or <a href="BrowseAloud" title="BrowseAloud">BrowseAloud</a> that add <a href="Text-to-speech" class="mw-redirect" title="Text-to-speech">text-to-speech</a> functionality to web content. The primary audience for such applications is those who have difficulty reading because of learning disabilities or language barriers. Although functionality remains limited compared to equivalent desktop applications, the major benefit is to increase the accessibility of said websites when viewed on public machines where users do not have permission to install custom software, giving people greater "freedom to roam".

</p><p>This functionality depends on the quality of the software but also on a logical structure of the text. Use of headings, punctuation, presence of alternate attributes for images, etc. is crucial for a good vocalization. Also a web site may have a nice look because of the use of appropriate two dimensional positioning with CSS but its standard linearization, for example, by suppressing any CSS and Javascript in the browser may not be comprehensible.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Customization">Customization</h2></div>

<p>Most screen readers allow the user to select whether most <a href="Punctuation" title="Punctuation">punctuation</a> is announced or silently ignored. Some screen readers can be tailored to a particular application through <a href="Script_(computing)" class="mw-redirect" title="Script (computing)"><b>scripting</b></a>. One advantage of scripting is that it allows customizations to be shared among users, increasing accessibility for all. <abbr><a href="Job_Access_With_Speech" class="mw-redirect" title="Job Access With Speech">JAWS</a></abbr> enjoys an active script-sharing community, for example.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Verbosity">Verbosity</h3></div>

<p>Verbosity is a feature of screen reading software that supports vision-impaired computer users. Speech verbosity controls enable users to choose how much speech feedback they wish to hear. Specifically, verbosity settings allow users to construct a mental model of web pages displayed on their computer screen. Based on verbosity settings, a screen-reading program informs users of certain formatting changes, such as when a frame or table begins and ends, where graphics have been inserted into the text, or when a list appears in the document. The verbosity settings can also control the level of descriptiveness of elements, such as lists, tables, and regions.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, <a href="JAWS_(screen_reader)" title="JAWS (screen reader)">JAWS</a> provides low, medium, and high web verbosity preset levels. The high web verbosity level provides more detail about the contents of a webpage.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Language">Language</h3></div>

<p>Some screen readers can read text in more than one <a href="Language" title="Language">language</a>, provided that the language of the material is encoded in its <a href="Metadata_Encoding_and_Transmission_Standard" title="Metadata Encoding and Transmission Standard">metadata</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Screen reading programs like <a href="JAWS_(screen_reader)" title="JAWS (screen reader)">JAWS</a>, <a href="NonVisual_Desktop_Access" title="NonVisual Desktop Access">NVDA</a>, and <a href="VoiceOver" title="VoiceOver">VoiceOver</a> also include language verbosity, which automatically detects verbosity settings related to speech output language. For example, if a user navigated to a website based in the United Kingdom, the text would be read with <a href="British_English" title="British English">an English accent</a>.

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<ul><li><a href="List_of_screen_readers" title="List of screen readers">List of screen readers</a></li>

<li><a href="Screen_magnifier" title="Screen magnifier">Screen magnifier</a></li>

<li><a href="Speech_processing" title="Speech processing">Speech processing</a></li>

<li><a href="Speech_recognition" title="Speech recognition">Speech recognition</a></li>

<li><a href="Speech_synthesis" title="Speech synthesis">Speech synthesis</a></li>

<li><a href="Vinux" title="Vinux">Vinux</a></li>

<li><a href="VoiceOver" title="VoiceOver">VoiceOver</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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<div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/screen_reader" class="extiw external" title="wiktionary:Special:Search/screen reader">screen reader</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div>

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</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.microsoft.com/enable/at/types.aspx">"Types of Assistive Technology Products"</a>. Microsoft Accessibility<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 13,</span> 2016</span>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-afb-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-afb_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-afb_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-afb_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.afb.org/blindness-and-low-vision/using-technology/assistive-technology-videos/screen-reading-technology">"Screen reading technology"</a>. <a href="American_Foundation_for_the_Blind" title="American Foundation for the Blind">AFB</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 23,</span> 2022</span>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-Screen1-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Screen1_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181113075826/https://www.vadsa.org/ace/reader.htm">"Screen Readers and how they work with E-Learning"</a>. Virginia.gov. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.vadsa.org/ace/reader.htm">the original</a> on November 13, 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 31,</span> 2019</span>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://windows.microsoft.com/en-us/windows/hear-text-read-aloud-narrator#1TC=windows-8">"Hear text read aloud with Narrator"</a>. <a href="Microsoft_Office" title="Microsoft Office">Microsoft</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 13,</span> 2016</span>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFCoyier2007" class="citation web cs1">Coyier, Chris (October 29, 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://css-tricks.com/accessiblility-basics-turn-your-css-off/">"Accessibility Basics: How Does Your Page Look To A Screen Reader?"</a>. CSS-Tricks<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 13,</span> 2016</span>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-SR_Overview-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-SR_Overview_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nomensa.com/blog/2005/what-screen-reader">"What is a Screen Reader"</a>. Nomensa<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 9,</span> 2017</span>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://webaim.org/projects/screenreadersurvey9/">"Screen Reader User Survey #9"</a>. <a href="WebAIM" title="WebAIM">WebAIM</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 1,</span> 2021</span>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFCooke2004" class="citation web cs1">Cooke, Annemarie (March 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.afb.org/aw/5/2/14760">"A History of Accessibility at IBM"</a>. <i>The American Foundation for the Blind (AFB)</i>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-:0-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sigcas.org/2018/02/08/making-a-difference-award-2009-jim-thatcher-interview/">"Making A Difference Award (2009) — Jim Thatcher (interview)"</a>. <i>SIGCAS, the Association for Computing Machinery Special Interest Group for Computers and Society</i>. 2009.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060625225004/http://www.edstoffel.com/david/talkingterminals.html">"Talking Terminals. BYTE, September 1982"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.edstoffel.com/david/talkingterminals.html">the original</a> on June 25, 2006<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 7,</span> 2006</span>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Paul Blenkhorn, "The <abbr>RCEVH</abbr> project on micro-computer systems and computer assisted learning", British Journal of Visual Impairment, 4/3, 101-103 (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.visugate.biz/bjvi/1986/autumn1986.html#RCEVH">Free HTML version at Visugate</a>.</span>

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<li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rnib.org.uk/information-everyday-living-using-technology-beginners-guides/beginners-guide-assistive-technology">"Access to personal computers using speech synthesis. RNIB New Beacon No.76, May 1992"</a>. March 3, 2014.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">According to "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="ftp://service.boulder.ibm.com/sns/sr-os2/sr2doc/guitalk.txt">Making the <abbr>GUI</abbr> Talk</a>" (by Richard Schwerdtfeger, <i>BYTE</i> December 1991, p. 118-128), the first screen reader to build an off-screen model was outSPOKEN.</span>

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<li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://developer.android.com/training/accessibility/index.html">Implementing Accessibility on Android</a>.</span>

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<li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://developer.apple.com/documentation/Accessibility/Reference/AccessibilityLowlevel/index.html">Apple Accessibility <abbr>API</abbr></a>.</span>

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<li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://java.sun.com/products/accessbridge/">"Oracle Technology Network for Java Developers – Oracle Technology Network – Oracle"</a>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFZongLeeLundgardJang2022" class="citation journal cs1">Zong, Jonathan; Lee, Crystal; Lundgard, Alan; Jang, JiWoong; Hajas, Daniel; Satyanarayan, Arvind (2022). "Rich Screen Reader Experiences for Accessible Data Visualization". <i>Computer Graphics Forum</i>. <b>41</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">15–</span>27. <a href="ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2205.04917">2205.04917</a></span>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fcgf.14519">10.1111/cgf.14519</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0167-7055">0167-7055</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:248665696">248665696</a>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.freedomscientific.com/SurfsUp/Web_Verbosity.htm">"JAWS Web Verbosity"</a>. <i>www.freedomscientific.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 6,</span> 2022</span>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFChris_Heilmann2008" class="citation web cs1">Chris Heilmann (March 13, 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://developer.yahoo.com/blogs/ydn/yahoo-search-results-now-natural-language-support-7318.html">"Yahoo! search results now with natural language support"</a>. <i><a href="Yahoo!_Developer_Network" class="mw-redirect" title="Yahoo! Developer Network">Yahoo! Developer Network</a> Blog</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090125024422/http://developer.yahoo.net/blog/archives/2008/03/yahoo_search_re.html">Archived</a> from the original on January 25, 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 28,</span> 2015</span>.</cite></span>

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